ABSTRACT
The data of repeated surveys can be used to estimate various parameters of the space-time universe. This chapter shows how to estimate the current mean, i.e., the population mean in the last survey, the change of the mean between two surveys, the temporal trend of the mean, and the space-time mean. The change of the spatial mean between two sampling times can simply be estimated by subtracting the estimated spatial means at these two times. With the supplemented panel and rotating panel designs, the two spatial means are estimated by the generalised least squares estimators. For design-based estimation of the space-time mean of a continuous temporal universe, both the sampling locations and the sampling times must be selected by probability sampling. The space-time designs are illustrated with the annual mean air temperature at two metres above the earth surface in Iberia for 2004, 2009, 2014, and 2019.
