ABSTRACT
This chapter focuses on the observed effects of climate change on physical, biological, and human and managed systems, with an understanding of vulnerability and climate-related hazards. The factors that influence vulnerability and exposure are considered, evaluating the sensitivity of systems to climate change. Ocean ecosystems have responded to climate changes of different rates, magnitudes, and durations. Urban housing is an example of ‘built environment’ that climate change impacts. The impacts of climate change on rural settlement, livelihoods, and incomes are the result of chains of multi-step contributions. Climate change impacts the international trade in both physical and value terms. The human health is sensitive to changes in weather patterns and climate, and the effects occur directly as well as indirectly. Human security is more and more threatened with the changing climate due to the interaction of multiple factors, particularly market forces, the state, and civil society.
