ABSTRACT
Experimental evidence supports the idea that matter in all the three phases is composed of tiny particles called molecules which are continuously in motion. Atoms are the basic building blocks of ordinary matter with typical diameter sizes of about 0.1 to 0.5 nanometers. An atom is the smallest particle that can represent a particular chemical element. The atoms in crystalline solids are arranged in neat and ordered structures, but the forces which hold the atoms together are different. The fundamental forces that drive the interactions between the various forms of matter are electrostatics, gravity and magnetism. The charges at the surface and the counter ions in the solution form a so-called electric double layer. Hence, the electrostatic repulsion is called a double-layer repulsion. The charging of a surface in a liquid occurs in two ways: by the dissociation of surface groups and by adsorption of ions onto the surface.
