ABSTRACT
In the past, file processing techniques were used to design information systems. These systems usually consist
of a set of files and a collection of application programs. Permanent records are stored in the files, and
application programs are used to update and query the files. The application programs were in general
developed individually to meet the needs of different groups of users. In many cases, this approach leads to a
duplication of data among the files of different users. Also, the lack of coordination between files belonging to
different users often leads to a lack of data consistency. In addition, changes to the underlying data
requirements usually necessitate major changes to existing application programs. Among other major
problems that arise with the use of file processing techniques are lack of data sharing, reduced programming
productivity, and increased program maintenance. Because of their inherent difficulties and lack of flexibility,
file processing techniques have lost a great deal of their popularity and are being replaced by database
management systems (DBMS).
