ABSTRACT
Africa. • The male:female ratio is 7:1. • The incidence of adenocarcinoma (mostly located distally) has
been increasing.
Aetiology Risk factors include: • Barrett’s oesophagus (13% risk). High-grade dysplasia is asso
ciated with the highest risk • achalasia • corrosive strictures • diverticular disease of the oesophagus • Plummer-Vinson syndrome • smoking, alcohol consumption, the rubber industry, vitamin C
deficiency, human papilloma virus (a minor role), zinc defi ciency and tylosis.
