ABSTRACT
Simple systems discussed in the first seven chapters were formed by nonreacting compounds, did not include electrically charged species, and were considered to be large enough to make surface effects negligible. Chapter 8 introduced a first generalization of the thermodynamic treatment and included the discussion of reacting systems. Thus, we accept now that the internal energy of the system can change by the exchange of heat with the surroundings, by expansion or compression work due to the action of external forces, and also by the change in the number of moles of the components due to the fact that either the system is open or it undergoes chemical reactions, or both.
