ABSTRACT
This chapter provides a detailed discussion on the occurrence and production, uses, chemical and physical properties, exposure and exposure limits, toxicokinetics, and effects of vanadium in humans. The earth's crust contains an average of 150 ppm vanadium in the form of relatively insoluble salts. In nature, vanadium generally occurs in the trivalent state. It is extracted in the United Sates from carnotit, phosphate rock deposits, titanium-bearing magnetite associated with vanadium; and vanadium-bearing clays. Ferrovanadium is produced by smelting scrap steel and NaVO3 in electric arc furnaces. It is used to produce construction steels and tool-and-die steels. Vanadium is also used in high-strength titanium and aluminum alloys. Vanadium compounds are used as polymerization catalysts for ethylene-propylene copolymers and synthetic rubbers. The effects of vanadium in humans include information on acute toxicity, chronic toxicity, biochemistry, specific organs and systems, teratogenicity, mutagenicity, and carcinogenicity.
