ABSTRACT
Amphibians were the first vertebrates to bridge the gap between aquatic and terrestrial environments and a major challenge was to cope with desiccation. To prevent desiccation and maintain respiratory exchange, the skin is bathed with secretions from skin glands. Granular glands are more restricted in distribution on the body. Poisonous salamanders are found in local populations in the northeastern US and along the Pacific coast of the US and Canada. Poison arrow frogs are neotropical species, inhabiting riverine areas in northern South America and Central America. Amphibian poisoning is seasonal and varies with the region. In northern temperate climates, spring and summer are the months of reproduction and increased density of toads. Poison dart frogs are not involved in poisoning of animals except by injection. Signs of toad poisoning may occur within seconds to minutes of mouthing or ingestion of a toad and death may follow in as little as 15 min.
