ABSTRACT
Things,[10] and The Invisible Computer;[11] Thomas
Landauer in his book The Trouble with Computers;[12]
Charles Billings in his book Aviation Automation: The
Search for a Human Centered Approach;[13] Michael
Dertouzos in his book The Unfinished Revolution:
Human Centered Computers and What They Can Do for
Us;[14] and by other computer scientists such as Joseph
Goguen[15,16] and Terry Winograd[17,18] as well as cogni-
tive engineers including Pietro Carlo Cacciabue, Erik
Hollnagel, and David Woods.[19]
Starting in this timeframe, and continuing for a decade
or so, a flurry of acronyms was introduced, such as
“Human-Centered Design,” “User-Centered Design,”
“Contextual Design,” and literally dozens more. They
came from academic groups and private sector businesses
(e.g., on design, on software engineering, on human fac-
tors). The designations sometimes reflected differences in
focus or approach, but most converged on similar ideas.[20]
Currently, the term “Human-System Integration” (HSI)
has come into wide use, primarily as a result of its spread
from the U.S. Navy through the rest of the U.S. Defense
establishment. HSI refers to the requirement that procure-
ments of large, costly, and important information systems
consider human factors in a more substantive way than
they sometimes had in the past.[21] Consideration of issues
of efficiency, safety, training, and other considerations that
are central to traditional human factors analysis would
have to continue, of course, but research and development
projects would have to go beyond those to include consid-
eration of issues of usability, resilience, and adaptability.
Greater emphasis on these factors in procurement was facili-
tated by world events (i.e., terrorism), which made it clear
that military organizations confronted by unconventional
forms of aggression needed to be able to cope with unanti-
cipated events and cope when resources are stretched.[22,23]
