ABSTRACT
I. Background......................................................................................................................... 344 II. Generic Issues Relevant to Procedures Used in Peacekeeping Incidents .......................... 345
A. Chemical and Physical Approaches ........................................................................... 345 1. Physical Measures for Close Range and Remote Incapacitation ........................ 345 2. Peripheral Chemosensory Irritant (PCSI) Chemicals .......................................... 346 3. Obscuring Smokes ............................................................................................... 346 4. Visible and Occult Markers ................................................................................. 346 5. Malodorants ......................................................................................................... 347 6. Low-Friction Polymers ........................................................................................ 347 7. Centrally Acting Neuropharmacological Agents ................................................. 347
B. Generation and Dispersal Methods for Agents........................................................... 347 1. Smoke Generation................................................................................................ 348 2. Powder Clouds ..................................................................................................... 349 3. Dispersion as Vapor............................................................................................. 349 4. Dispersion in Solution ......................................................................................... 349
III. Biomedical Criteria for Health Hazard Evaluation ............................................................ 351 A. Laboratory Toxicology Studies .................................................................................. 351 B. Human Volunteer Studies and Trials.......................................................................... 353 C. Environment and Decontamination ............................................................................ 354
IV. Peripheral Chemosensory Irritants ..................................................................................... 354 A. General Comments ..................................................................................................... 354 B. Criteria and Determinants of Potency and Effectiveness ........................................... 355 C. 1-Chloroacetophenone (CN) ....................................................................................... 356 D. 2-Chlorobenzylidene Malononitrile (CS) ................................................................... 358 E. Dibenz(b.f)-1,4-oxazepine (CR) ................................................................................. 361 F. Oleoresin Capsicum (OC)........................................................................................... 363 G. Pelargonic Acid Vanillylamide (PAVA) .................................................................... 364
V. Mental (Central) Incapacitants ........................................................................................... 366 A. 3-Quinuclidinyl Benzylate (BZ) ................................................................................. 366 B. Fentanyl and Analogs ................................................................................................. 367
VI. Malodorants ........................................................................................................................ 367
VII. Injuries and Mortalities in Peacekeeping Operations ....................................................... 372 A. Circumstances ........................................................................................................... 372 B. Physical Injuries ........................................................................................................ 373 C. Chemical Injuries and Complications ....................................................................... 373 D. Immediate and Medical Management of Casualties................................................. 374
VIII. Preparation and Readiness for Peacekeeping Operations ................................................. 377 References ..................................................................................................................................... 378
The causes and circumstances of civil disturbances are extremely variable regarding the numbers of persons involved, reasons for the disturbance, geographical location, the influence of extremists, confrontation with antagonistic elements (opposing the cause), and the activities of demonstrators, police, and security forces. At one end of the spectrum of civil disturbances is physical assault by one or a few individuals on a member of the public or an officer of the law, and where self-protection is needed against the malefactors. At the other extreme are large-scale demonstrations by protestors in which law enforcement personnel may become involved, and where physical violence occurs that could result in damage to private or public property, and where there is likelihood for injury, or even death, among participants or bystanders who, by chance, are present in the area of the disturbance. If many individuals participate in a civil disturbance involving potentially dangerous physical activity, this constitutes what is popularly described as a riot. Such riotous situations occur at differing locations and are precipitated by numerous and varying factors; for example, civil unrest, dissatisfaction or gang conflict in prisons, escalation of a civil demonstration against political dictates, disputes at sports meetings or social events, and indeed any gathering where there are likely to be conflicts of opinions within groups or where emotions may become heightened or distorted. In these situations, and where security forces are used to restore law and order, there may be multiple injuries, sometimes fatal (see Section VII). Demonstrations having variable degrees of conflict with security personnel and law enforcement agencies and full-scale riots have been and will continue to be an inevitable consequence of dictatorial, demanding, and ethically suspect political regimes and administrations. Indeed on the day that this paragraph is being written there are reports of the following large-scale demonstrations and riots in various parts of the world, with markedly differing causations. A jail riot in Los Angeles due to racial tensions, with one death and in excess of 100 injured, many seriously (BBC, 2006a; USA Today, 2006a). A violent demonstration with burning of Embassy buildings and fatal injuries occurred in Beirut as a consequence of the publication in Danish and Norwegian newspapers of demeaning cartoons (images) of the Muslim prophet which could be construed as sacrilegious; simultaneous and subsequent demonstrations, some also violent with fatalities, occurred in other parts of the world including Muslim communities in London, Pakistan, India, Iran, Afghanistan, Iraq, and Jordan (BBC, 2006b, 2006c; CNN, 2006a, 2006b; USA Today, 2006b). After a ferry sank in the Red Sea resulting in hundreds of deaths, a physical conflict occurred at the Saudi port of Doha between relatives of the ferry passengers and police as a result of the maritime transport company failing to give timely information about the conditions of the incident (CNN, 2006c, 2006d). These examples emphasize the variable causations of civil disturbances and that the outcomes may include widespread publicity, accusations of excessive and unnecessary physical force by security personnel, claims for injury, litigation, public discussions, and official enquiries; such postevent implications are discussed in detail by Ballantyne and Salem (2004).
