ABSTRACT
Abstract .................................................................................................................. 100 4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 100
4.1.1 The Oil Palm Industry and Palm Oil Production ............................. 100 4.1.2 The Coconut Industry and Coconut Oil Production ......................... 102
4.2 The Refining of Crude Palm Oil and Crude Palm Kernel Oil ..................... 102 4.2.1 Degumming ...................................................................................... 103 4.2.2 Bleaching and Spent Bleaching Clays .............................................. 103 4.2.3 Deodorization ................................................................................... 105 4.2.4 Various Products and By-Products from Palm Oil Refining ............ 105
4.3 Chemical Characteristics of Palm Oil and Palm Kernel Oil ........................ 107 4.3.1 Palm Oil ............................................................................................ 107 4.3.2 Palm Kernel Oil ................................................................................ 108
4.4 The Physical Refining of Coconut Oil .......................................................... 110 4.5 Chemical Characteristics of Coconut Oil ..................................................... 110 4.6 The Use of Palm Oil and Palm Kernel Oil in Aquafeeds ............................ 111
4.6.1 The Impact of Palm Oil on Feed Quality ......................................... 111 4.6.1.1 Feed Storage Properties and Nutritional Changes ............. 111 4.6.1.2 Feed Digestibility ............................................................... 112
4.6.2 The Impact of Palm Oil on Fish Growth Performance .................... 114 4.6.2.1 Tropical Fish Species ......................................................... 120 4.6.2.2 Temperate Fish Species ...................................................... 122 4.6.2.3 Crustaceans ........................................................................ 122
4.6.3 The Impact of Palm Oil on Farmed-Fish Eating Quality ................. 123 4.6.3.1 Fillet Fatty Acid Profile ..................................................... 123 4.6.3.2 Deposition of Palm Vitamin E and Carotenoids in Fish
Tissues ................................................................................124 4.6.3.3 Organoleptic Properties ..................................................... 125
4.7 The Use of Coconut Oil in Aquafeeds .......................................................... 126 4.8 Conclusions ................................................................................................... 127 References .............................................................................................................. 127
There is currently great urgency within the aquafeed industry to find suitable alternatives to dietary fish oils in order to sustain the rapid growth of the global aquaculture industry. Potential substitutes for fish oil in aquafeeds include palm oil and saturated fatty acid-rich oils such as coconut and palm kernel oils. Global production of crude palm oil exceeded 43 million metric tons and, together with about 9 million metric tons of coconut and palm kernel oils, constitutes a highly available and sustainable source of lipid for the aquafeed industry. When freshly extracted, crude palm oil is the richest known natural source of β-carotene and is also a rich source of vitamin E, consisting of tocopherols and tocotrienols. The production, refining process, and chemical characteristics of palm, palm kernel, and coconut oils are presented in this chapter. The effects of the use of these oils in the feeds of various species of fish and shrimp are discussed in detail, compiling all major research conducted to date. Various benefits of palm oil use in aquafeeds are reviewed, including aspects pertaining to feed quality, fish growth, and fillet quality. Constraints in the use of these saturated fatty acid-rich oils in aquafeeds are also highlighted and appropriate strategies to overcome these challenges discussed.
