ABSTRACT
interface to refer to physical objects in a robot’s workspace. Such interfaces have shown moderate promise for robots assisting people with severe disabilities. A recent study has investigated modalities as diverse as head motion, breath expulsion, and electrooculographic signals (eye motion recorded by measuring electrical activity in the vicinity of the eye) as alternative interfaces for people with disabilities (Mazo et al., 2000).Interface technologies also exist that are unique to robotics, in that they require physical embodiment. A classic example is that of a mechatronic head (Breazeal, 2003a, 2003b) shown in Figure 4b. The face is capable of exhibiting different facial expressions, such as a smile, a frown, and a surprised look. The face does this by moving actuated elements into position reminiscent of human muscular movement when expressing certain emotions. In the past decade, dozens of such faces have been developed for service robot applications, with varying degrees of dexterity and expressiveness. Many robotic faces are able to change the expression of the mouth and the eyes, emulating basic expressions such as smiling and frowning. The face shown in Figure 4b possesses 15 independently actuated elements and, consequently, can express quite a range of different postures.Some researchers have begun to explore the social aspects of service robotics. Humanoid robots, by virtue of their appearance and behavior, may appeal to people differently than other technological artifacts, as a recent survey suggested (Fong, Nourbakhsh, & Dautenhahn, 2003). Most research thus far on sociable robots has focused on humanoid robots and robots with humanoid elements (see Figure 6a). For instance, Kiesler and Goetz (2002) reported on experiments in which the presence and absence of humanoid features and the behavior of the robot influenced people’s assumptions about its capabilities and social inclinations. Scassellati (2000) investigated the use of humanoid robots to understand human development. His prototype robot uses its ability to track where a toddler is looking to create a model of gaze movement and focus of attention. Robots like his may be used in the future to help train autistic children to behave more socially. We do not yet know if children will interact with a robot as they will with a person. More generally, it remains unclear whether we, the people who will ultimately interact with service robots on a daily basis, will seek social-style interactions with robots that parallel our interactions with other people.
