ABSTRACT
The early literature regarding the persistence and movement of pathogens dealt with land application of sewage, effluent, or low-solids sewage sludge (Sepp 1971). This literature indicated that the use of raw sewage could result in animal or human health infections (Bicknell 1972; Dunlop, Twedt, and Wang 1951; Dunlop and Wang 1961). Currently, the practice of applying untreated sewage or sewage sludge is prohibited in the United States, Canada, and Europe. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) 503 regulations allow land application of biosolids (treated sewage sludge) as either class A or class B material. Class A treatments are intended to significantly reduce pathogens to virtually nondetected limits. Class B treatments allow land application with crop restrictions and a regulated concentration of fecal coliforms (see Epstein 1997). With all the regulations and efforts by agencies such as the US federal government, there are still numerous incidences of foodborne and waterborne diseases. From 1990 to 2003, produce caused the most foodborne disease in the United States. In England and Wales, 6.4% and 10.1% of all disease outbreaks with a known food vehicle occurred from 1993 to 1998 and 1999 to 2000, respectively. Some of the foodborne diseases could be the result of soil contamination (Brandl 2006).
