ABSTRACT
Current first-generation nanotechnology takes advantage of constructing nano versions of macro/bulk counterparts, thereby exploiting the changes in properties and molecule behavior which occur at the nanoscale. Creating nano-sized versions of their macro counterparts takes advantage of the smaller size (e.g., increased surface area to volume/mass ratio, increased capacity of electrical conductivity, etc.) and thereby increases the reactivity of the particular substance and efficacy among other properties [7, 10]. This change of substance properties can dramatically reduce the amount of raw materials needed to manufacture products and can potentially reduce environmental impact and
pollution levels. In the long term, production costs are driven down in comparison to current macro-technological counterparts where scarcity can increase raw material costs [9]. For example, a company that manufactures medical equipment or pharmaceuticals would benefit from requiring less platinum or gold to manufacture their products since nanotechnology affords greater efficiency of precious and rare raw commodities. Use of the nanoscale form of active therapeutic ingredients has been approved by regulatory bodies and has since been introduced into the marketplace. One example is sunscreen containing nano versions of the active ingredient zinc oxide (ZnO) and titanium dioxide (TiO2) [11]. Often, nano versions of these particles have shown increased efficiency and enhanced properties when incorporated into cosmetic and therapeutic products [11]. 29.2.2 New DiscoveriesOne of the most widely publicized developments in nanotechnology were the discovery of fullerenes in 1985-the Buckminster fullerene (C60 or Buckyball) [12] and later the discovery of carbon nanotubes in 1991 [13, 14]. These forms of carbon are stronger than diamond, conduct electricity at near 100% efficiency, are light weight, and are flexible when in the form of tubes [13, 15]. Discovery of these particles can lead to new green technology by creating revolutionary new products ranging from energy-efficient electronic devices to light yet strong aircrafts that use less fuel. Carbon nanotubes are 117 times stronger than steel at only one sixth of the weight [16] and are identified by the scientific community as the only material that has the potential to be used to build the cable of a space elevator [17], among other more immediate industrial uses in construction and other industries [2]. 29.2.3 Future Possibilities and OpportunitiesIn fact, the promise of nanotechnology is beyond imagination. Examples range from the theoretical possibilities of quantum computing [18], and super-efficient solar cells [19], to nano-robots repairing damaged human cells [4]. As an enabling technology, nanotechnology has extremely wide applications and
commentators have remarked that humanity is only at the early stage of this new industrial revolution [20]. In 2008, it was estimated that 850 nanotechnology-based products were already in the marketplace. It is estimated that the production of nanomaterials is currently in the millions of tons
worldwide and is expected to rise significantly [23]. However, as promising as nanotechnology is, very little is known about the impact it can have on human health and the environment as actual research into the effects of nanoparticles in the environment and on humans is still at the early stages. Moreover, there has been a heightened concern among academics and researchers about the potential toxicity and environmental risk of nanomaterials. 29.3 The Environmental Health RisksThe risks of nanomaterial pollution in the environment are largely unknown. In theory, it is generally accepted that some nanoparticles have the potential to affect the health of people, animals and the environment [24], but it is also agreed by the scientific community that more research is warranted. The United Kingdom Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution commented that there is insufficient understanding of the toxicity of nanomaterials, and that little research has been conducted on their environmental impact as they become detached from products or used at the point of disposal [25].However, results from the limited research which has been conducted on the effect of nanoparticles on laboratory rats and fish give cause for concern [26, 31]. As mentioned earlier, nanoparticles do not act in the same way as their larger macro counterparts do and some have startling properties like the ability to remain airborne longer [3]. Studies have found that Buckminster fullerene (C60) can cause inflammatory reactions, induce lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress to fish [27, 28], and death to bacteria [29]. Similarly, exposure of aquatic animals to nanoparticles may cause toxicological risk to aquatic ecology and the food chain [30]. A carbon allotrope in the form of nanotubes has a similar structure to that of asbestos and studies have suggested that, after inhalation, these nanoparticles can stick to tissue walls in the lungs of rodents causing
inflammation, granuloma formation and the formation of lesions [31-33]. Manchikanti and Bandopadhyay [34] also mentioned that nanoparticles are small enough to reach the DNA in the cell’s nucleus and could attach to it. Further, nanoparticles are small enough to seep through the soil, enter the water table, and spread through such watercourse [35].The most alarming prospect of nanotechnology is the suggestion by some commentators that rogue self-replicating nanomachines fuelled by “elements common in the natural environment” could convert biomass into replicas of themselves on a global basis, turning everything into “grey goo” [36]. But such apocalyptic dangers have been dismissed by many scientists as too far-fetched and fanciful, on the verge of “quackery” [36]. Nevertheless, it has startled some members of the public [39].The more immediate and real issue concerning nanotechnology and the environment is that nanoparticles can be environmental hazards [26]. Potentially, nanoparticles, due to their small size, could rapidly distribute throughout the environment during their lifecycle and bio-accumulate in soil, plants, and animals with unknown long-term effects [26]. For instance, a few years after the introduction of sunscreens containing nanoparticles, the Blue Scope Steel Company discovered that the nanoparticles in the sunscreens somehow was transferred from installation workers to the steel roofing and caused dramatic weathering [40]. No further research was conducted, but this finding demonstrates that materials created by nanotechnology affect other materials with which they come into contact.Thus, these issues of risk have sparked debate to regulate the production, monitoring, use and disposal of nanotechnology products, which would certainly have an impact on innovation and a company’s ability to exploit discoveries, and, in turn, profitability.
