ABSTRACT
Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, which had won independence when the old Russian empire foundered in 1917, were annexed in 1940 by the USSR. In 1990 they reasserted their independence, declaring that the annexations had been illegal. The Soviet Union, after brief attempts at suppression, recognized the three Baltic states’ independence in 1991; but much negotiation was needed to bring about the withdrawal of Russian forces, which was not completed until 1995. Problems also arose over the Russians who by 1991 had come to form 31% of Estonia’s population and 36% of Latvia’s (Lithuania had a Russian minority of only 8%). Angry gestures from Moscow followed Estonia’s decision that post-1940 Russian immigrants must pass a language test to become Estonian citizens.
