ABSTRACT
“Collective action is collective,” 1 and it does not occur without the cooperation of sufficient participants. However, individuals tend to maximize benefits and minimize costs by free-riding or defecting, even if cooperation would lead to greater benefits for all. 2 This assertion is based on the assumption that the collective good is beneficial or valuable to prospective participants. In some circumstances, this assumption does not hold, and collective action becomes more difficult when the solidarity of prospective participants is weak or nonexistent. 3 Specifically, collective action is difficult when some people do not view it as a desirable choice and do not face coercion of participation. Hence, fragmented interests in collective goals or the availability of alternatives reduces the scale of collective action or even prevents it.
