ABSTRACT
Consider seventeenth-century Europe before the explosion of industrial capitalism. A few large cities dot the map – Paris, London, Rome – and hustle and bustle centers on commerce and agriculture. Across Europe small forges produce weapons or basic output for limited use; most people are peasants or serfs1 who work the land and produce many of their own goods. Some skilled villagers produce specialized goods (e.g. the village smithy), and skills are passed to novices working beside masters. Identity is local, families are extended, and several generations may live under one roof. People survive mostly on what they produce, and many goods passing through cities often do not reach them. Life expectancy is low, infant mortality is high, and literacy is rare. Many peasants do not work for money but exchange goods through primitive barter (payment in kind). They do not travel; the village is their world.
