ABSTRACT
The largest number of reform efforts were part of a movement to organize twentiethcentury American society into an efficiently functioning unit that would be in harmony with the needs of a modern industrial society. The American Federation of Labor evolved as a loose federation of craft unions seeking to preserve the autonomy and work practices of self-employed artisans who were losing work to factories organized and managed according to scientific principles. In some American cities, social settlements like Hull House were established to achieve the same objectives that Jane Addams sought in Chicago. In addition, many cities used their public schools as a base for Americanization classes for adult immigrants. Administrative progressivism sought changes in school organization and management that gave power to a new class of professionally trained school administrators. Pedagogical progressivism took place largely outside the ranks of school administrators.
