ABSTRACT
A number of minor problems inherent in polysystem theory have been raised by various scholars. Further systemic concepts have been proposed to supplement the model: Lefevere ( 1 983b: 1 94) , for example, suggests the addi tion of notions of polarity, periodicity and patronage. A number of scholars have ques tioned the necessity of the primary/ secondary distinction (Lefevere 1983: 1 94; Gentzler 1 993: 1 22). Gentzler further suggests that the influence of Russian Formalism is too strong, and that polysystem theory needs to break free from some of its more restrictive concepts ( 1 993: 1 22-3). However, the influence of Even-Zohar's thinking has been considerable, the new approach which it has engendered being particularly associated with groups of scholars in Israel, Belgium and the Nether lands. Probably the most significant extension of the model is found in Toury ( 1 980a), where Even-Zohar's target-oriented approach is consolidated and the notion of translation NORMS - the factors and constraints which shape standard translation practices in a given culture - is introduced and developed (Toury 1 995 is a continuation of this work). Hermans' ( 1 985) collection of largely descriptive essays by a variety of scholars is another important expression of this relatively new approach, contributing in particular the notion of transla tion as the manipulation of literature.
