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Pacifism is not a particular political doctrine, but the general belief that all war is morally unacceptable, and that there are no adequate justifications for using violence or physical force in pursuit of any end, political or otherwise. Although such beliefs obviously have existed throughout history, it is probable that only in the current and two previous centuries have they been at all widespread, organized, or come to be associated particularly with certain political positions. In part the reasons for this are historically accidental, because warfare for most of the post-medieval period, until especially the world wars, was largely confined to small and professional military forces. Conscription, practised extensively in continental European armies in the 19th century, and by all important nations during one or both of the world wars, made it hard for those with pacifist beliefs to avoid military service. Hence it became both necessary and possible for the collective exposition of the doctrine to develop. Various other factors have been influential, for example the abandonment by

Christian Churches, for example, of theological arguments that made the notion of a just war easy to promulgate, and the sheer horror of the First World War which persuaded many who experienced it afterwards to support the various peace movements that were formed. An important political reason for the wider spreading of pacifism was the analysis of the causes of war suggested by much anarchist and left-wing thought, and especially by Marxism. From this political position wars between nations are entirely prompted by the selfish economic aspirations of the ruling capitalist eÂlites, but the only people to suffer in them are the exploited proletariats of both sides. Thus international communism, with the notion of fraternal bonding between workers of all countries, produces both the idea that the proletariat should unite against warmongering capitalists and an atmosphere conducive to pacifism. The increasingly liberal politics of Western democratic nations, with an

emphasis on civil liberties, has provided a context in which a genuine pacifist claim cannot be ignored. So, for example, the conscription laws in Germany

allow those with an objection to war to serve in a non-combatant role. An additional factor that has increased the attraction of pacifism for many has been the threat that nuclear war, and perhaps any war fought with modern technology, threatens the ecological safety of the entire world. Despite this, pacifism occupies an unusual political position as an idea respected and protected but almost completely ignored by governments. Were pacifism ever to become sufficiently popular actually to restrict war-making capacity, it is likely that it would also cease to be a protected minority view.