ABSTRACT

Values and identities relate to firmly held positions and ingrained preferences which draw upon the collective memories of the cultures concerned. Within cultures they are disseminated through the socialising experience in which custom, tradition and education assume a prominent role. Their definition at any point in time presents problems for analysis, but as every practitioner of foreign or security policy knows, their exclusion comes at the cost of much misunderstanding and error. They are understood through their consistency over time, and their influence is noticeable in those sensitive areas of foreign and security policy which touch upon the collective’s view of itself and which leaders are obliged to protect. In those areas values have a direct impact upon the policy-making process by restricting the range of possible options, by eliminating contrary alternatives and elevating those choices which are perceived to uphold preferences. The positions that are accordingly developed are foundational for the collective concerned and establish the parameters of decision-making for secondary areas of policy where instrumental calculations are feasible as long as core values are unchallenged. Decision-makers may be seemingly preoccupied with instrumental choices in which core values may not be consciously at issue. Each decision may be a product of some immediate cost-benefit calculation, but when examined over a long period of time certain preferences may become visible. These preferences are inherent in the socialisation of the decision-makers and their interaction within the broader context of decision-making and its constituent domestic actors.