ABSTRACT
A variety of other policies can have major effects on the trade of individual developing countries, although their impact on total world trade is limited. Tied aid, export credits and security-inspired restrictions on types and directions of some exports impose constraints on their imports from industrial countries. The few remaining commodity agreements can affect both importers and exporters of the relevant products. For most small countries (or small exporters of a commodity) they are effectively external interventions, even if there is formal participation in decisions. Finally there is a range of other policies accepted, for example by their inclusion in GATT negotiations, as potentially related to trade. These have effects which are difficult to measure or to quantify on a product and market basis, but which are potentially important constraints on a country’s own trade strategy. They include regulations on the protection of health, the environment, and intellectual property.
