## ABSTRACT

In a completely randomized design (CRD), the treatments are assigned to the experimental units at random. This is appropriate when the units are homogeneous, as has been assumed in the designs leading to the one-and two-way analysis of variances (ANOVAs). Sometimes, we may suspect that the units are heterogeneous, but we can not describe the form the difference takes-for example, we may know that a group of patients are not identical, but we may have no further information about them. In this case, it is still appropriate to use a CRD. Of course, the randomization will tend to spread the heterogeneity around to reduce bias, but the real justification lies in the randomization test discussed in Section 3.3. Under the null hypothesis, there is no link between a factor and the response. In other words, the responses have been assigned to the units in a way that is unlinked to the factor. This corresponds to the randomization used in assigning the levels of the factor to the units. This is why the randomization is crucial because it allows us to make this argument. Now if the difference in the response between levels of the factor seems too unlikely to have occurred by chance, we can reject the null hypothesis. The normal-based inference is approximately equivalent to the permutation-based test. Since the normal-based inference is much quicker, we might prefer to use that.