ABSTRACT
Although. ancient complex educational systems existed in a number of countries-China, India, and Greece among them-universities as they exist today across the globe arguably descend from two specific mother institutions in Bologna and Paris.1 Inspired by Arab scholars working in Spain, motivated youths and scholars banded together into academic guilds to share ideas, to study, and to discuss new trends in mathematics, astronomy, and literature in twelfth-century Europe.2 Over the next two centuries these professional academic guilds appeared throughout Europe, and soon European imperialism ensured their establishment around the world as well.
