’EΘIΣMΩ̢

Perhaps I may be pardoned for putting a Greek word at the head of this chapter, a word which Aristotle employed in the discussion of the problem with which we are now concerned. He was the “ master of those who know.” He laid the foundations of our European culture, and there is hardly a branch of knowledge which he did not either open or enlarge. Physics, metaphysics, ethics, politics, this great mind embraced ; and in the treatment of the moral life he made some observations and some suggestions which are of vital importance even now, after centuries of Christian teaching. One thing he said about habit and the formation of habits, which leads us into the whole practice of life. “ Habituation ” is the only way of rendering the word in English ; but in its English form we miss the connection between ethismos and ethics, which was in Aristotle’s mind. The long e in ethics represented to him the strengthening of the short e in ethismos. Morals are built up on habits. The constant repetition of an act forms a habit ; the combination of habits constitutes a character. Δίκαιοι γιγνόμ∊θα δίκαια πράτοντ∊ϛ. We become righteous by doing righteous deeds. Here is a truth which is not the whole truth, and yet it is of such moment that in the light of the whole truth it assumes even a greater importance. Christian thought has led us to question that half truth, that we become good by doing good actions, because from the point of view which Christ has given us an action is not good until it is done with a right motive, until the agent is himself good. Speaking in the strictest sense it is being good, having the right motive, acting with a pure intent, showing 268the good spirit, which makes an action good. And actions which are formally correct, however frequently repeated, done without the spirit, or from a wrong motive, are not in the Christian sense good. For instance, a man may give alms systematically, and actually help the needy materially ; but if his object is to gain political support, nay, even if his object is to gain merit and to save his own soul, we do not, because Christ would not, call the action good. Christ has set the Pharisees of His time before us as a perpetual example of men who were always doing good actions without becoming good. So far Aristotle’s dictum is subject to correction.