ABSTRACT
In this chapter we will examine a number of languages which may in some respects all be considered varieties of Spanish, but which to a greater or lesser extent are further removed from the various Spanish standards (whether in the Peninsula or Latin America) than any of the regional varieties we have so far considered. What they all have in common is that they have either developed or have come to be spoken in situations where access to native speakers of what we might view as a ‘mainstream’ variety is not available. This has happened in a number of ways, which are individual to each case.
