In the past, colonialism intruded upon the Pacific island states as in other areas of the world. While this particular threat may be a thing of the past, globalisation, industrialisation and modernisation now loom large.1 It has been said that modernisation brings a form of ‘economic colonialism’ just as dangerous to indigenous peoples.2 And there is little doubt that industrialisation has caused environmental damage and continues to negatively impact upon the natural environment. Simultaneously, marine living resources are affected by regulatory approaches based upon the identification of ‘maximum sustainable yields’ aimed at ‘optimum utilisation’. One option to address these multiple concerns is to embrace localisation; not in isolation but combined with cooperation and collaboration at all levels of government and among different communities. Simply devolving responsibility to the lowest level will not necessarily ensure positive outcomes, nor will simply providing customary tenure.3 Nevertheless, the case studies illustrate that community-based environmental management (CBEM) and customary law are continuing to play an important part in the governance of marine areas. Therefore, in circumstances where centralised approaches to environmental governance have been ineffective, localised approaches have value and, if supported by government, may facilitate biodiversity conservation and, more broadly, sustainable development. This book commenced, in Chapter 2, with a consideration of the concept of sustainable development, from its origin to implementation. While it has become a dominant international and national governance paradigm, the achievement of its ‘triple bottom line’ goals is proving elusive. The sustainable development problematique extends beyond a determination of its meaning and core principles, to the mechanisms by which it can be operationalized. Best practice approaches to sustainable development law and policy remain unclear, and many countries, in the Pacific and elsewhere, continue to wrestle with the concept and struggle with its realisation. In this context CBEM has emerged as an important element of an enriched sustainable development toolbox. It is now well recognised that sustainable development cannot be achieved by action only at the

and the relative strengths and weaknesses of each must be acknowledged within legal systems, institutions and processes. It is also clear that there must be much greater harmonisation between them. Thus, achieving sustainable development involves more than just horizontal integration of social, economic and environmental goals; it necessitates vertical integration within society to achieve good environmental governance.