Introduction

The term ‘modern China’ as a historical concept has remained rather elusive. In Mainland China, 1840 is regarded as the starting date because of the First Opium War, a date to mark China’s defeat and decline. Given Jesuits once dominated the Ming and Qing Imperial Observatory and their modern calendar affected the everyday life of the ordinary Chinese, ¹ taking 1800 as part of China’s modern history is well justified.