ABSTRACT

Humanism implies both a human and a humane approach to educational problems: human in the sense that human nature and human interests should not be suppressed by religion in favour of an ascetic ideal and a narrow dogmatic interpretation of the world; humane in the sense that the nature of the child and its growing mind should not be suppressed by cruel school discipline and rigid methods of instruction. It was a revolt against the medieval dualism of spirit and body, the latter being “a vessel of evil” to be subdued by severe corporal chastisement. It was a revolt against the monopoly of theology and Church dogma in the theory and practice of medieval life. It was not directed against Christianity; on the contrary, humanism accepted its close connection with the Christian tradition and Christian morality. The universal validity of Christian teaching and its international character was taken by humanists as the foundation of their ideas. In its original setting humanism meant the libera tion of reason from the shackles of dogma and a critical study of nature and humanity through the observation of actual facts. The Middle Ages having concentrated on theological questions neglected science, and the scientific achievements of Aristotle, Theophrastus, Pliny or Galen were not surpassed simply because they were known in fragments or in wrong interpretation and could not serve as a basis for further research. To recover that knowledge the humanists insisted on a thorough learning of Latin and Greek so that the original sources could be read. After the birth of modern science and modern philosophy with Bacon and Descartes, this reason for classical studies lost its justification, but the early practice of humanist schools was firmly established and influenced European education for three centuries. Accepted by Protestant reformers and Jesuits alike, this narrow classical interpretation of humanism became as stifling to the progress of secondary and higher education as the medieval orthodoxy before it. “Humaniora” in the broadest sense, including the study of the human body and surrounding nature, were narrowed down to “Humanities” as classical studies. Under these circumstances the grammar schools and Universities still under the official control of the Church lost the true spirit of the Renaissance and became obstacles to rather than promoters of modern science and philosophy. In conse quence the true aim of the Renaissance, the liberation of men's minds from Church dogma and the prevalent superstitions, and thus clearing the way for critical scientific inquiry, was repre sented by learned societies, independent philosophers and private initiative and not by the old Universities. The remarkable move ment forward in all fields of human activity, called the Renais sance, was made possible by an exceptional combination of events, which happened in the second half of the fifteenth century. Of all European countries, Italy was best suited for the revival of classical learning and philosophy. Greece was prostrate under the heel of the Turk and could contribute by individual refugees only; Spain had only just been united, after the fined victory over the Moors, and concentrated on orthodoxy and national unity. Italy, on the other hand, was politically divided among many rival principalities and republics, which tried to excel each other both in politics and cultural development. No other country afforded such an opportunity for men of talent and new ideas, who could choose the town or court which paid the most and gave the fuller freedom of expression. Italian soil itself was full of classical remains which lay actually on the surface and required only to be picked up. Then three important events followed in rapid succession. Constantinople fell in 1453 and a wave of Greek learned refugees filled the courts of Italy, bringing with them their knowledge and Greek manuscripts. The invention of the printing press by Gutenberg in 1438 made possible a much wider and quicker diffusion of knowledge, and the discovery of America by Columbus in 1482 burst open the narrow confines of the medieval world. Thus the discovery of the ancient world was coupled with the discovery of the new world, and this expansion of the horizon was made available to wide circles through the printed book.