ABSTRACT
Despite the bloodbath that had already occurred, and the clouded horizon that indicated even more killings and the massive movement of peoples across the border, the actual transfer of power took place amidst scenes of great joy, with inspiring speeches by both Muhammad Ali Jinnah, as he convened Pakistan’s Constituent Assembly on 11 August 1947, and Jawaharlal Nehru “at the midnight hour” four days later. There was no doubt expressed there about both the challenges to be faced, and the political system under which they would work: both countries would be democracies, and they would be led by those who had won freedom, and could justly claim the people’s mandate to rule (see P. Talbot 2007: 313-40). The task of actually governing, however, required a partnership with the bureaucracy, and it quickly became clear that the two countries would be very different in this respect.
