PROPAGANDA

The two most famous poets in the middle of the first century BC, Catullus and Lucretius, were both proudly independent of the political elite. Catullus, from a prosperous family in Verona in Cisalpine Gaul, was a ‘Neoteric’: he wrote poetry that was sophisticated and meant for a refined audience. He was both a love poet, writing extremely intense poems about a girlfriend he called, confusingly for modern readers, Lesbia (a reference to the poet Sappho of Lesbos), and a hate poet, writing breathtakingly insulting and obscene poems, some about Caesar and his political associates. Lucretius, about whose life nothing is known, wrote a long poem setting out the teachings of the Greek philosopher Epicurus, who believed that we should keep away from politics and the community and make personal friendships the centre of our lives. If politicians in the late Republic wanted literature that reflected well on

them, they had to produce it themselves. Writing was a respectable pursuit for the political class: the first Roman historian, Fabius Pictor, came from a noble family, and the great Cato the Elder wrote on history and agriculture. Caesar wrote histories of the Gallic and Civil Wars, with brilliant success. Cicero wrote a poem on his consulship, which was not so successful: the line ‘O fortunatam natam me consule Romam’ (‘O lucky Rome, born in my consulship’) was still being mocked by the satirist Juvenal a century and a half later. Augustus, on the other hand, is closely associated with the poetry of

Virgil and Horace. Virgil’s and Horace’s families had lost property in the confiscations of the Triumviral period, and were given money and land by Maecenas. It could be argued that they had no choice but to write propaganda in support of Augustus, since he and Maecenas were providing them with their only means of support. It does need to be remembered, however, that Maecenas was not the only patron of writers at this time – the poet Tibullus, for example, was the client of Valerius Messalla – and that they gave their support to Augustus long before his victory in the civil war.

Both Virgil and Horace became clients of Maecenas in around 38. At this time Augustus seemed to be in a weak position: it was not until 36 and his victory over Sextus Pompey that it began to look as if he had a good chance of defeating Antony. It is probably, therefore, too cynical to see the work of these poets as

‘dictated’ by Maecenas or Augustus himself. In fact, both Virgil and Horace had backgrounds typical of Augustus’ political supporters. Virgil came from Cisalpine Gaul; in spite of the example of Catullus, the Cisalpine Gauls generally favoured popularis politicians, who had supported their claims to Roman citizenship, and especially Caesar. Horace belonged to the class of wealthy non-Roman Italians who had seen Marius and Caesar as their champions and, once the confiscation of land for veteran soldiers was over, had high hopes of Augustus, both because he was Caesar’s heir, and because his birth family was not part of the Roman nobility, but Italian. (Horace tells us, playing up his ‘humble’ origins, that his father was a freedman, but he was also a wealthy auctioneer. Horace went to Athens to finish his education, and joined Brutus’ army as a military tribune – a junior officer; both facts mark him out as a member of the equestrian class.) Horace and Virgil were important men within Maecenas’ circle, as

revealed, with a pretence of modesty, in Horace’s Satires, written in the thirties. In Satires 1.5, Horace tells us that they both travelled down with Maecenas to Brundisium in 37, when Maecenas was helping to bring about the Treaty of Tarentum. In Satires 2.6.29-59, Horace complains that he is constantly being pestered by people who want information or favours from Maecenas. Virgil’s Georgics, published c. 29, was a poem on Italian agriculture,

perfectly in tune with Augustus’ policy of promoting all the communities in Italy (tota Italia – which, since 41, had included Cisalpine Gaul) and his desire to revive the traditional virtues of Rome’s rural past. Around 28, another poet, Propertius, published his first book of poems.

It is a classic collection of what were known as ‘love elegies’. A life passed in the single-minded pursuit of love is presented as the ideal. Public service, which is compared to slavery and warfare, is rejected. Poem 1.21 is a lament in which a relative, Gallus, is imagined as speaking from beyond the grave; he had fought against Augustus’ troops at Perusia in 41. It might have seemed an impossible task for Maecenas to recruit this poet for the Augustan court, but he managed it. In the first poem of Propertius’ second book, which is addressed to Maecenas, he claims that he would write about ‘Caesar’s wars, great Caesar’s works’ (line 25), if he had the ability; unfortunately, he can only find inspiration in love. The poem is an example of a common type known as a recusatio. The poet begs forgiveness for not being able to produce the kind of poem that has been asked for, but insists that he would if he could. These poems are completely insincere: the poet has

no intention of producing a poem different from those he normally writes; ancient poets were not famous for their modesty, so he probably believes that he could perfectly well produce any kind of poetry he put his hand to; and the person addressed has almost certainly not really asked him to change his style. However, writing a recusatio shows politeness towards the person addressed by suggesting that this person deserves anything that he wishes. The theme is repeated in 2.10, but this time with more than a hint of

mischief: for twenty lines, Propertius declares that the time has come for him to write about Augustus’ military triumphs, before, in the last six lines, he teasingly says that after all he is not quite ready yet. In 2.7, he appears to refer to an early attempt of Augustus, otherwise unrecorded, to introduce the kind of marriage legislation that was eventually passed in 18; he makes it clear in strong terms that he refuses to abandon his love affair with a woman he calls ‘Cynthia’ for respectable marriage and fatherhood. 2.15 mentions Actium, but rather than thanking Augustus for putting an end to conflict he presents the remedy for civil war as men turning from political to sexual passion, making love not war. But Maecenas did get something for his money. Propertius wrote a poem

(2.31) praising the new portico to the Temple of Apollo, built by Augustus on the Palatine Hill and opened in 28. Many scholars believe that what we know as Propertius’ second book was originally two different books, so 2.31 may have been published later than the other poems mentioned, and show Propertius becoming less spiky in his relationship with the new regime. However, in Propertius’ third book, which dates from 20 or later, ambiguity still remains. One poem, 3.12, seems to recall his old attitudes: he tells off a soldier for leaving his lover behind. In poem 3.4 he writes, apparently patriotically, about the Parthian expedition of 21-20 – the emphasis on the expected profit in lines 1-3 might be considered cheeky, but successful generals were happy to boast about the booty they had won; Propertius, however, imagines himself watching the triumphal parade from a window, curled up in his mistress’s lap. Is he being self-mocking or subversive? But in 3.11, Propertius compares himself, hopelessly ‘enslaved’ by a woman, to Antony, and implies (lines 7-8) that he is too old to behave like this; this is a profound change from 2.7, in which he asserts the superiority of the lover over the soldier. By implication, he rejects his older views as those of a foolish young man. (Griffin 1984: 214 has a different view, believing that 3.11 turns the story of Antony and Cleopatra into ‘a more or less frivolous parallel to Propertius’ own difficulties with a dominant woman’.) Poem 3.18 is a lament for the death of Marcellus; 4.6, published around 13, a celebration of victory at Actium. Neither poem shows any obvious sign of distancing or insincerity. Propertius had been on a long journey, but he was able to take at least

some of his old readers with him, by taking gradual steps, using humour,

and keeping true to his poetic style. He did not suddenly switch to epic poetry or tragedy. His later poems take inspiration from Callimachus, a Greek poet from Alexandria in Egypt who wrote about the origins of buildings and ceremonies. This subject matter gave him the opportunity to write poems that flattered Augustus, but Callimachus was famously witty and clever, so he was able to keep writing in a manner not too far removed from that of the sparkling love poems of his youth. Books 1, 2 and 3 of Horace’s Odes were published together in 23. Horace

himself, who had fought for Brutus and Cassius at Philippi, was living proof of Augustus’ forgiveness. Ode 1.4 is dedicated to Sestius, one of the Republican consuls of 23. In Ode 2.7, Horace greets ‘Pompeius’, a supposed old friend who is mentioned nowhere else in his poetry and whose name is so clearly symbolic of old quarrels (Caesar and Pompey, Augustus and Sextus Pompey) that we may suspect that he has been made up. ‘Who has now restored you to citizenship?’ asks Horace – the answer is obvious. Horace pretends that he threw away his shield and fled in panic from Philippi – an object of laughter, even to himself, no danger to anyone. Pompeius was ‘sucked back’ into war, so his return to Italy shows that Augustus has forgiven even those who were much more stubborn and persistent enemies than Horace. Now that he has had revenge against the murderers of his father Caesar, as duty (pietas) demanded, Augustus is able to show mercy (clementia). Horace can party with his friend: ‘Such ecstasy/ is sweet, when friends come home again.’ Partying is never just partying in Horace: it is propaganda for Augustus, who has made it possible for the Romans to party again. Horace was never a popular poet. Virgil was something of a celebrity:

a famously shy man, he is said to have been embarrassed and overwhelmed when he was mobbed in a theatre after the publication of his first book of poems, the Eclogues, in around 39-38. Horace wrote for a smaller, more select audience. However, he had just as great a value to Augustus. Virgil’s later writings use poetic forms, serious didactic and epic poetry, which were clearly suited to Augustus’ politics and likely to appeal to those already inclined to support the new regime. Horace took on a genre, lyric poetry, which was traditionally used by those who held a disrespectful attitude to authority, such as the young Propertius, or Catullus, and who believed that love and leisure were more important than war and politics. In cultural terms, Horace took the fight to the enemy. Here is the fifth poem of Horace’s first book of Odes (author’s

translation):