ABSTRACT
In Western Europe organizations representing major interests in civil society, such as chambers of commerce, trade unions, agricultural and ethnic associations, were active in promoting democratization. As the right to vote was broadened, political parties were established in association with civil-society organizations. Political socialization in farmers’ organizations, trade unions, church schools and ethnic associations created loyalties among people who did not have the right to vote. European socialist parties were often organized as a part of the campaign to ensure all working-class men the right to vote. Parents often transmitted group and party loyalties to their children before they were old enough to vote. These links created the basis for stable parties and durable party identifications.
