ABSTRACT
Political participation is often conceptualized as spanning a spectrum from conventional to unconventional modes of behavior. The exact dividing line between the two modes is not always entirely clear and varies from country to country, but the simplest marker is to ask whether a type of political participation can lead to arrest and punishment. In some nondemocratic countries, attempts to organize an election, create a new political party, or even form an interest group might be considered illegal. In more democratic countries, such types of political activity are widely accepted, but other types of more unconventional activity are less tolerated. Peaceful protest marches, demonstrations, and other forms of activism are often highly restricted by the authorities, who may intervene forcefully if traffic is being disrupted or property is being damaged. Almost universally, regardless of whether a country is democratic or nondemocratic, the use of violence to achieve political aims would be met with countermeasures by police or military forces.
