ABSTRACT
Caliph head of the Islamic community. Abu Bakr was appointed as Muhammad’s successor in 632 with the title
Arabic
caravanserai caravan stop – hostel for travellers with provision for storage of their goods
Persian/ Turkish
castrum Roman fortress or fortified camp Latin
cataphracti Byzantine armoured, mounted forces Greek
cella enclosed shrine of a classical temple to which only priests are allowed access
Latin
Coele, Syria literally ‘hollow Syria’ – originally probably a reference to the region around the indentation of the Beqa`a Valley, later apparently applied to northern Syria
Greek
dar al-`adl court of justice Arabic
dar al-`imara ‘abode of princes’ or princely palace (fr. `amil – ‘prince’; pl `ummal)
Arabic
dar al-hadith school for study of teachings of the Prophet Muhammad Arabic
darb path, route Arabic
daftardar chief financial official in an Ottoman governorate, usually appointed directly from Istanbul and remaining in office for a long period
Turkish
deir monastery Arabic
demos people, population of a city Greek
derwish member of a Sufi order, mystic Persian
dhimmi non-Muslims from one of the communities of ‘the Book’ – Christian, Jew, Samaritan
Arabic
diwan (pl dawawin)
(1) office, ministry – integral part of the governor’s seraya; (2) consultative body advising a governor
Turkish/ Arabic
Druze sect which broke away from Isma`ili mainstream under the third Fatimid Caliph, Hakim (r.996-1021); predominant in certain mountainous regions of Syria and Lebanon
Arabic
dux military commander Latin
effendi (originally) scribe or bureaucrat; Ottoman honorific title Turkish
emir see amir Arabic
ethnarch national or tribal ruler Greek
firman Ottoman imperial decree signed by the Sultan Turkish
fondaco factory, see funduq Italian
funduq (pl fanadiq) inn; factory housing merchant and his wares (from Greek pandocheion)
Arabic
Ghassanids Arab tribal grouping which accepted Christianity and settled within the Roman limes in Syria in the late fifth century
Arabic
hadith recorded sayings or actions of the Prophet Arabic
Hajj annual pilgrimage to Mecca Arabic
halqa guard assigned to sultan – Ayyubid Arabic
Hanafi one of the four schools of Islamic jurisprudence – from teachings of Abu Hanifa al-Nu‘man ibn Thabit (d.767) – developed in the mid-eighth century from Basra-Kufa tradition – emphasis on personal reflection in decisions – favoured by Ottomans
Arabic
Hanbali one of the four schools of Islamic jurisprudence – from teachings of Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d.855) – most literal and rigorous, emphasis on the Koran and Sunna not speculation or mysticism – in vanguard of Sunni revival in tenth century – particularly strong under Mamluks
Arabic
hammam public steam bath Arabic
Hijaz northern Arabia, location of the holy cities of Islam, Mecca and Medina
Arabic
hijra Muhammed’s ‘emigration’ from Mecca to Medina (AD 622) – start of the Islamic era
Arabic
ibn son of (sometimes bin) Arabic
al-Ikhshid Fatimid honorific title – ‘brilliant, worthy’ Persian
Ikhshidids Muhammad ibn Tughj al-Ikshid established a short-lived dynasty (935-69) which maintained Damascene independence against the rising power of the Arab principality of the Hamdanids in Aleppo
ArabicPersian
Ilkhans Mongol ruling dynasty in Persia, 13-14th centuries Persian
imam prayer leader Arabic
imaret public kitchen, usually charitable institution Turkish, from Arabic
iqta` grant entitling holder of military or administrative office to use tax revenues raised from an estate – unlike European feudalism, no permanent right to ownership of land was conferred
Arabic
Isma`ili branch of Shi`a Islam, supporters of the claim of Isma`il, son of Jafar as Sadiq (d.765), to the spiritual leadership of Islam
Persian/ Arabic
iwan room with open side looking onto a courtyard and serving as a space for entertainment or instruction
Arabic from Persian
jadid new Arabic
jami`a congregational mosque Arabic
janissaries Ottoman troops – both locally raised (yerliya) and Istanbul-based (kapikul)
Turkish
Jazira literally ‘island’ – usually refers to the north-east of Syria between Tigris and Euphrates Rivers
Arabic
jebel hill or mountain Arabic
jihad ‘effort directed upon oneself for the attainment of moral and religious perfection’ – by extension, ‘military action with the object of the expansion of Islam’ (Djihad in EI2)
Arabic
jizya poll tax paid to state by non-Muslims Arabic
jund (pl ajnad) governorate Arabic
kapikul (pl kapikuli)
Ottoman professional forces rotated from Istanbul (from Turkish qapi qulu – ‘slave of the Porte’)
Arabic from Turkish
Karmati (Qarmati, Carmathians)
sect, now defunct, that broke away from the Isma`ili tradition, followers of Hamdam Karmat in late ninth century Bahrain who frequently challenged Fatimid rule in Syria and Iraq
Arabic
karma band of vine (acanthus and grape) leaves used for decorative purposes and possibly to describe a sacred space (literally ‘vine’)
Arabic
khan (pl khanat) depot-hostelry for exchange of goods Persian
khanqah (khankah; pl khawanik)
‘monastery’ for Sufi mystics, generally stricter than a zawiya and usually named after a benefactor
Arabic, from Persian
kharaj (or kharj) land tax Arabic
khatun ‘princess’, later title of respect for any woman Kurdish, Arabic
khirbet ruin Arabic
Koran (Kur’an (EI2), Qur’an)
Muslim holy scripture as revealed to Muhammad Arabic
kubbat see qubba Arabic
Kurds people of Iranian origin, inhabiting eastern Turkey, parts of northern Syria and northern Iraq
limes areas on the frontier of the Roman and Byzantine Empires
Latin
limitanei initially frontier forces commanded by a dux; later locally raised militia often farming frontier land
Greek
madhanat tower – one of three words used to refer to ‘minaret’ Arabic
madhhab way of thinking, persuasion – one of four schools of Islamic jurisprudence
Arabic
madrasa (pl madaris)
residential school for Islamic instruction, usually funded by a charitable endowment (waqf )
Arabic
mahmal palanquin or canopy used to cover the Prophet’s grave at Medina, provided each year by the Islamic ruler as contribution to the Hajj and transported by camel
Arabic
majlis council of representatives, usually of a local character Turkish
malik ‘king’ but more commonly used for any governor or prince of the Ayyubid or Mamluk realms
Arabic
Maliki one of the four schools of Islamic jurisprudence – developed in the eighth century from doctrines of Imam Malik ibn Anas (d.795) as an initiative by `Abbasid Caliph al-Mansur to unify Islamic law codes around the consensus and tradition of Medina – emphasis on moderation; opposed to mysticism – strong in Spain and North Africa
Arabic
mamluk (pl mamalik)
literally ‘thing possessed’, ‘slave’ – professional soldiers recruited in childhood from marginal lands (initially, Central Asia) and trained to serve a patron
Arabic
mamlaka royal power, kingdom or governorate Arabic
makbara cemetery Arabic
maqam foot, mode, measure Arabic
marj grazing area on the edge of cultivated land (hence, Merdje Square). Other parts of the Damascus marj are referred to by specific names – e.g. Marj Rahit (northeast of the city – after 14th century, Marj al-`Adra’), Marj al-Suffar (south). These areas often served as rallying zones for invading armies
Arabic
maristan hospital and medical teaching institution Arabic
mashhad ‘place of witness’ – shrine (esp in Shi`ite tradition) Persian
Mawlawiye (Mevlevi)
Sufi order – followers of Jalal al-Din Rumi (Mawlana – ‘our master’) died Konya 1273 – by reputation, syncretist with inclinations towards Shi`ism
Arabic/ Turkish
metrokomia (pl metrokomiai)
‘mother village’ – large village with supervisory administrative function over its environs
Greek
midan (or maidan) open area for military training Arabic
mihrab niche or alcove in the qibla wall of a mosque indicating the direction of Mecca
Arabic
Mongols Central Asia group whose original home was in the east of present-day Mongolia – their 13-14th-century empire attained its greatest extent under Ghengis Khan
—
mujahid warrior in the cause of Islam Arabic
muqaddam leader of a militia or armed group Arabic
muqarnas three dimensional decoration in Islamic architecture Arabic
mutasallim, mutasarrif
local official in the Ottoman system, usually ruler of a sanjak (or deputy to a governor of a wilayat)
Arabic/ Turkish
nahr river or canal Arabic
na’ib (pl nuwwab) ‘substitute, delegate’ – military governor or senior administrative official
Arabic
na’ib al-sultana viceroy – highest administrative official under a sultan Arabic
Naqshbandi (Nakshbendi)
Sufi order – followers of Bahar al-Din Naqshband (14th century) – by reputation, strict and fanatical
Turkish
nargilla (or narghile)
water pipe for smoking Turkish
narthex vestibule stretching across western end of a church Latin
nawfara spring, water source, fountain Arabic
noria wooden waterwheels used to draw water from a stream to irrigate gardens
Arabic
Nusairis see `Alawis – followers of a Shi`ite heterodox sect French
Ortuqids Turkish dynasty which controlled region of Diyarbakir (eastern Turkey) from 11-14th centuries
Turkish
pasha Ottoman title of high rank (in Arabic, basha) Turkish
peribolos outer compound surrounding a Greek-Roman temple complex
Greek
Porte the ‘Sublime Porte’ was the name of the gateway by which foreign envoys approached the Ottoman court and was often used as a synonym for the imperial administration
French
procurator agent of the Roman government, especially for financial affairs – also used for official supervising minor provinces where no legions were stationed
Latin
propylaeum gateway marking entry to a sacred enclosure Greek
qa’a formal reception room of an Arab house Arabic
qadi judge under Islamic (Shari`a) law Arabic
qala`a (t) citadel or castle Arabic
qanatir arches, arcade Arabic
Qarmati see Karmati Arabic
qasr castle or mansion Arabic
Qays Arab tribe Arabic
qibla wall facing the direction of prayer, towards Mecca (in Damascus, south)
Arabic
qubba (kubbat) tomb, mausoleum (more commonly, turba) Arabic
Qur’an see Koran Arabic
rabat see ribat
ra`is (pl ru`asa`) leader – e.g. of a local gang or militia; of a village; of a religious community
Arabic
ribat (or rabat)
riwaq
monastery for Sufi mystics; barracks for men committed to guarding the frontiers
portico, colonnade, loggia
Arabic
Arabic
salya salon of a late Ottoman house Turkish from French
sanjak flag, standard; in Ottoman administration, local administrative unit
Turkish
sanjakdar royal standard bearer Turkish
Saracens originally a tribe from the northern Hijaz (Ptolemy Geography 6.7), the term was adopted by the Romans to refer generically to nomadic Arabs
ArabicLatin
seraya governor’s palace or headquarters Persian via Turkish
selamlik public quarters of an Ottoman house Turkish
Seljuk Turkish dynasty which reached peak of its power in 11-12th centuries in Anatolia and Syria
Turkish
Shafe`i one of the four schools of Islamic jurisprudence – follow teachings of Imam al-Shafe`i (d.820) – opposed to conformism; more emphasis on community consensus, on Sunna – strong in non-Fatimid Egypt and in Syria; the preferred code under the Ayyubids
Arabic
sharaf ‘elevated place’, (river) ‘bank’ –‘Upper Sharaf’ is the term applied to the higher ground overlooking the Barada from the north, location of present downtown Damascus
Arabic
sharia transliteration: shaari` = street (anglicised as ‘sharia’) Arabic
Sharia transliteration: sharii`a = Islamic traditional law Arabic
sheikh dignitary or headman; spiritual leader of a group of mystics
Arabic
Shi`a (Shi`ites) movement for the recognition of the claim of the descendants of `Ali. Originally particularly strong in southern Iraq, Shi`ism became a reaction to the dominance of the Sunni Turkish Seljuks in the `Abbasid Empire
Arabic
shihna prefect of a city (Ayyubid) Arabic
Sublime Porte see Porte
Sufi Islamic mystic – sought to establish, through piety and self-denial, personal contact with the Creator – emphasis on gnosis or personal knowledge rather than legal interpretation of the Koran and hadith [EI2 ‘Tasawwuf’]
Arabic
Sunna (hence, Sunni)
generally approved standard or practice introduced by the Prophet (EI2)
Arabic
suq (suk, pl aswak) market (see also suwayqa) Arabic
sultan a term with various meanings but which implies that a person is appointed by a higher authority to hold temporal power. By Ayyubid times it was fairly loosely used and could be held by several princes simultaneously as a personal title
from Arabic salata – to have power
sultana administrative district or region, esp. under Mamluks Arabic
suwayqa small local market for daily needs Arabic
Syria Coele literally ‘hollow Syria’ – originally probably a reference to the region around the indentation of the Beqa`a Valley, later apparently applied to northern Syria
Greek
Tanzimat literally ‘reorganisation’ – administrative reforms introduced by the Ottoman authorities between 1839 and 1876 to regularise and centralise the workings of the imperial administration
Turkish
tekkiye Sufi monastery. (‘Tekkiye’ is used to refer specifically to the major project of Suleiman the Magnificent in Damascus.)
Turkish
temenos inner compound of a Greek-Roman temple, space for performance of outdoor sacrifices
Greek
tetrakionion (pl tetrakionia)
structure allowing four-way passage – e.g. cluster of four plinths with surmounting columns, usually unroofed; free-standing
Greek
tetrapylon four-way arch, usually marking crossing point of two routes and joined to structure of colonnades – see also tetrakionion
Greek
trebuchet siege engine – catapult for launching missiles French
turba mausoleum, tomb chamber, usually domed Arabic
Turkic language family of Turkish-speaking people Turkish
Turkoman Turkic tribes distributed over much of the Near and Middle East and Central Asia from medieval to modern times (‘Türkmen’ in EI2)
Turkish
Turks people of Central Asian origin who moved into Anatolia and parts of Syria and Iraq from the 9th century; Turkish-speaking inhabitants of the Ottoman Empire and its successor
Turkish
`ulama Islamic religious leadership Arabic
umm mother of Arabic
umma community of believers (in Islam) Arabic
vexillation Roman military unit grouped under their own vexillum (‘flag, standard’) but smaller than a legion
Latin
voussoir stone forming segment of an arch French
Wahhabis Islamic fundamentalist sect in Arabia Arabic
wali ‘governor’ – responsible for civil administration ArabicTurkish
waqf (wakf, pl awaqf )
endowment tying income from a business enterprise to support of a religious, charitable or educational institution
Arabic
wazir Ottoman rank usually corresponding to the status of a governor
ArabicTurkish
wilaya (pl wilayat) or vilaya
governorate (Mamluk, Ottoman) ArabicTurkish
Yamani Arab tribe of south-west Arabian origin Arabic
yerliya Ottoman local forces, often hired from among descendants of janissaries (Turkish yerlu = ‘local’)
ArabicTurkish
zawiya (pl zawaya) Sufi hospice – informal school for Islamic studies, usually named after the sheikh whose followers gathered there
Arabic