Pytheas of Massalia

It has long been assumed that the scantness of Greek activity beyond the Pillars of Herakles between 500bc and late Hellenistic times was due to Carthaginian hindrance. ¹ Evidence of such interference is circumstantial rather than explicit, based on limited Greek exploration of the Atlantic after this date in contrast to its earlier frequency, the poor knowledge of the Atlantic in Classical geographical sources, and a sudden insistence in the fifth century bc that sailing beyond the Pillars was neither possible nor desirable. Some of this must come from the long-standing Greek uncertainty about the External Sea, but nevertheless there is a new emphasis on the danger of movement beyond the Pillars and the inability of obtaining accurate information about what lay beyond. ² There is also an astonishing ignorance about the Atlantic. Herodotos’ knowledge is amazingly sparse: “I have never seen, nor, despite my efforts, been able to learn from anyone whether there is an ocean beyond Europe.” ³ Given the already extensive Greek exploration, this is strange, and seems to indicate that by the time of Herodotos earlier voyages had been forgotten and there was little contemporary Greek knowledge of the Atlantic.