A system of symbols used for the written notation of spoken language. A distinction must be drawn between non-alphabetic (=analphabetic) systems ( visible speech), as developed by A.M.Bell, O.Jespersen, and K.L.Pike, and alphabetic systems. Among the last group are most of the alphabets for phonetic transcription developed since the nineteenth century, which are mainly of historical value. The IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) developed by the International Phonetic Association, which is now in widespread use, is based primarily on the Latin alphabet (see chart, p. xix). Additional letters from Greek, reversed letters, and newly developed letters and diacritics (such as those needed to indicate long vowels and consonants, nasalization, and so on) are also part of the alphabet. As in the transcriptional system of D. Jones (1914), a distinction is made with regard to the degree of differentiation between ‘narrow’ and ‘broad’ transcriptions (e.g. [thæp¬] is narrow and [tæp] is broad). More recently, some modified or expanded transcriptional alphabets have been designed for special needs based on the IPA.Pullum & Ladusaw (1986) offer a good overview; the phonetic transcriptions in this dictionary are based on the system outlined in their book.