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Ibarruri, Dolores (1895-1989), Spanish Communist, known as ‘La Pasionaria’: born near Bilbao, married a miner from Asturias, giving up the Catholic beliefs in which she had grown to womanhood and accepting his Marxism. Her natural gifts of oratory, heightened by a razor-sharp mind, won her election to the Central Committee of the Spanish Communist Party in 1930, and she was twice returned to parliament in Madrid. Her speeches in the Cortes early in 1936 were widely reported, but she became famous by her defiant They Shall Not Pass’ call to the defenders of Madrid fighting against FRANCO in the Civil War. The fanaticism of ‘the Passion Flower’ was an inspiration, not only in Madrid, but in France where she sought both recruits and arms. In 1939 she settled in the Soviet Union, where STALIN accepted her as spokesman for the exiled Spanish Communists. She returned to Spain in May 1977, was allowed to speak once more at a rally in Bilbao, and was again returned to the Cortes as a Communist Deputy from Asturias. K.Low: La Pasionaria, the Spanish Firebird (1992); P. Preston: The Coming of the Spanish Civil War (1978). Ibn Saud (Abd al-Aziz Al Saud) (1880-1953), King of Hijaz and Nejd 192632 and first King of Saudi Arabia: born into the Wahhabi dynasty, in Riyadh, but was forced into exile by the Turks as a child. A Bedouin revolt in 1902 enabled him to recover control of his birthplace and by 1914 he was virtual master of all the Turkish possessions along the southern shore of the Persian Gulf. The British recognized his paramountcy as Emir of Hasa and Nejd in December 1915, but he stood aside from the Arab Revolt (cf. ABDULLAH, FAISAL) because of hostility to Emir Hussein. From 1919 to 1925 Ibn Saud turned his attention to the Red Sea coast, ousting Hussein and capturing the vital cities of Jedda, Medina and Mecca, thus making him ruler of a territory four times the size of metropolitan France. His proclamation at Mecca as King of Hijaz and Nejd on 8 January 1926 was recognized by the British sixteen months later. The unification of his kingdoms under the name ‘Saudi Arabia’ was announced by decree on 22 September 1932. A year later he concluded an oil agreement with an American company, but it did not strike oil in commercial quantities until February 1938, thereafter exploiting a dozen wells in two years, and with considerable wealth beginning to come to the King by 1946. Ibn Saud supported the British and Americans throughout the Second World War, and was received independently

by Winston CHURCHILL and Franklin ROOSEVELT in Egypt (February 1945). His personal sovereignty over his unified kingdom was maintained without concessions to popular demands up to his death, on 30 November 1953. D.Hoden and R.Johns: The House of Saud (1981); C.M.Helms: The Cohesion of Saudi Arabia (1981); M.Almana: Arabia Unified (1980); J.S. Habib: Ibn Saud’s Warriors of Islam (1978). Ichikawa, Fusaye (1893-1981), Japanese political and social feminist: born in Yokohama, settling in Tokyo as a young teacher during the First World War. Contact in the capital with American ideas encouraged her to help establish, in 1919-20, a New Women’s Association-a movement whose earliest campaigning success was permission for women to be present at political meetings. Three years of study in America brought Ichikawa under the influence of Carrie CATT and the National American Woman Suffrage Association and, on returning to Tokyo in 1924, she set up a Women’s Suffrage League. But Japanese women were not assured of their political and social rights until the promulgation in October 1946 of the new democratic constitution. From 1945 onwards Fusaye Ichikawa led the New Japan Women’s League in a long struggle against conservative social taboos. She entered the Japanese parliament in 1952 but was defeated in the election of 1971, probably because of her campaigns to legalize prostitution, or even because of her attacks on corruption within the bureaucracy. She was returned to parliament once more in the 1975 elections and was again successful in 1980, when she was in her eighty-seventh year. H.H. Baerwald: Japan’s Parliament (Cambridge, 1976); M.D. Kennedy: A History of Japan (1963). Ickes, Harold (1874-1952), US Secretary of the Interior from 1933 to 1946: born in Blair County, Pennsylvania and educated at the University of Chicago. He practised law in Chicago and showed interest in reformist politics in Illinois. As Director of the Public Works Administration under Franklin ROOSEVELT, Ickes was honest, but aroused criticism for his slowness. His temperament was churlish, he tended to inflame petty issues, and he was an outspoken critic of some of his colleagues, notably Harry HOPKINS. Over racial discrimination he was more liberal than the President and his diary shows that he was a useful party manager. He disliked TRUMAN, possibly because he had him self hoped to be Vice-President, and resigned in disgust at the conservative character of Truman’s appointments in 1946. No other American has remained so long at the Department of the Interior nor left so great a mark on its work as this least popular of the ‘New Dealers’. H.L. Ickes: The Autobiography of a Curmudgeon (New York, 1949), The Secret Diary of Harold L.Ickes (3 vols) (New York, 1953-4). Idris I (Said Mohammed Idris al-Mahdi al-Senussi) (1890-1972), King of Libya 1951-69: born at Djaraboub, a member of the Senussi family which gave its name early in the nineteenth century to a Muslim sect originating near Derna and, from 1911 onwards, long continued to resist Italian colonization of Libya. Idris was effective leader of the resistance from 1918 onwards, although he only

became titular head of the Senussi in 1933, establishing his headquarters in Egypt and being accepted by the British as Emir. In September 1947 Britain recognized him as head of state in his native Cyrenaica, which was for the first time accorded a constitution. On 24 December 1951 he was proclaimed King of an independent Libya, with the historic provinces of Cyrenaica and Tripoli linked in a federal structure. Although he joined the Arab League soon after his accession, King Idris collaborated closely with the British, who maintained bases in both provinces in return for training his army. The King’s decision in 1963 to abolish the federal structure was resented in Tripoli and his enfranchisement of women offended Muslim traditionalists, even among the Senussi. The rapid growth of oil exports from 1961 onwards encouraged the spread of a pan-Arab socialism opposed to the concessions which Idris granted to Anglo-American companies. In September 1969 King Idris was deposed by a military coup of which the young Colonel GADDAFI was principal instigator. Idris went into exile and the monarchy was abolished. J.Wright: Libya, a Modern History (1982.); E. Evans Pritchard: The Sanusi of Cyrenaica (1949). Ignatiev, Nikolai Pavlovich (1832-1908), Russian diplomat, soldier and panSlav: born in St Petersburg, educated in the corps of pages at the imperial court, served with a crack Hussar regiment from 1849 to 1856 and was then sent on diplomatic missions. His earliest success was at Peking, where in 1860 he secured recognition of Russian possession of the Far Eastern maritime provinces, from the River Amur northwards and including the site of Vladivostok. ALEXANDER I rewarded him with promotion to aide-de-camp General at the age of 29. From 1864 to 1877 Ignatiev was ambassador at Constantinople, advocating the extension of Russian protection to all the Slav subjects in the Balkans. He believed he had achieved this in January 1878 when, after the Ottoman Empire’s military defeat by Russia, he imposed the Treaty of San Stefano, which created a big Bulgaria, extending deep into Macedonia and the western Balkans and subject to Russian domination. But Ignatiev’s pan-Slav triumph was never ratified: his colleagues in St Petersburg feared that the treaty so upset the balance of power in Europe that it would lead to a general war, for which Russia was unprepared; the European Great Powers, meeting at the Congress of Berlin under BISMARCK’S presidency in June and July 1878, replaced San Stefano by a settlement which accepted only a small, autonomous Bulgaria and left much of the Balkans under the Sultan’s rule. Ignatiev served briefly as Russian Minister of the Interior in 1881-2, but spent the last twentyseven years of his life in retirement. He insisted that his gravestone should carry only his name and the three words, ‘Peking: San Stefan o’. A. (ed.): ‘The memoirs of Count N. Ignatyev’, Slavonic Review, Vol. 10 (1931-2); B.H.Sumner: Russia and the Balkans, 1870-1880 (1937). Inönü, Ismet (1884-1974), Turkish soldier, Prime Minister and President: born in Smyrna (now Izmir), served in the Ottoman Army from 1904 to 1918, winning distinction as Colonel Ismet in defence of Gallipoli in 1915 and being promoted to General in 1916. He was Chief of Staff to Mustafa KEMAL in 1920, defeating

the Greeks in two defensive battles around the village of Inönü in August and September 1921. He headed the Turkish peace delegation which negotiated the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, returning to Ankara where he became Kemal’s Prime Minister for the following fourteen years. In 1935, when the Turks adopted surnames, he took the name of the village where he had gained his victories and was thereafter known as Ismet Inönü. From November 1938 to May 1950 he was Turkey’s President, at first continuing Kemal’s strict dictatorship, but gradually relaxing controls of the press and public meetings. In foreign affairs he remained neutral in the Second World War until March 1945, despite inducements offered to him by Winston CHURCHILL at a meeting in Adana on 30-31 January 1943 (the only occasion Churchill set foot on the soil of a non-belligerent during his wartime premiership). In 1945-6 Inönü permitted the formation of an opposition Democrat Party which defeated his own Republican Party in the elections of May 1950. Inönü then accepted the role of leader of the parliamentary opposition, returning to office as Prime Minister in October 1961. The Cyprus problem plagued his premiership and was partly responsible for his final fall in February 1965. Although by now an octogenarian, who had narrowly escaped assassination (21 February 1964), Inönü continued to lead the parliamentary opposition vigorously until July 1972. B.Lewis: The Emergence of Modern Turkey (1961); K.H.Karpat: Turkey’s Politics; the Transition to a Multiparty System (Princeton, N.J., 1959); F.G.Weber: The Evasive Neutral (Columbus, Mo., 1979); F.Ahamad: The Turkish Experiment in Democracy 1950-75 (1979). Irigoyen, Hipolito: see Yrigoyen. Isabella II (1830-1904), Queen of Spain from 1833 to 1868: born in Madrid, the only child of Ferdinand VII (1784-1833) and of Maria Christina of Naples (1806-78), who was Regent for the first seven years of her daughter’s reign. This period of Regency was marred by such scandal and avaricious greed at court that only an enlightened and inspiring personality could make the monarchy acceptable again. Isabella did not possess any remarkable qualities, although she enjoyed some popularity until the closing years of her reign. Her position was weakened by the alternative appeal of her uncle and cousin whose ‘Carlist’ claim to the throne was based on the assumption that women had no right of succession, a claim supported by much of the north of the country and by many clericalists. Isabella was unable to rally disaffected regions in support of a unified national monarchy. She was hampered by the intrigues of her devout and ineffectual husband, Francis of Cadiz, whom she married in 1846; their child, who was to reign as Alfonso XII from 1875 until 1885, was born in 1857 but proved to be consumptive. Politically the unfortunate Isabella could not check the rivalry of ambitious Generals. Newspaper revelations, feeding on rumours that the Queen was a nymphomaniac, undermined her position in the summer of 1868 and revolts in the army and navy led to the triumph of a liberal revolutionary movement controlled by General PRIM. Isabella fled to France from her summer palace at San Sebastian (29 September) and was formally deposed. From exile she remained an embarrass ment-but not a threat-to her son and her daughter-

in-law, Queen Maria Christina (1858-1929) who, in the curiously cyclic pattern of Spanish monarchy, was Regent during the early years of Isaballa’s grandson, ALFONSO XIII . de Polnay: A Queen of Spain, Isabel II (1962); R.Carr: Spain, 1808-1939 (Oxford, 1966). Ismail (1830-95), Khedive of Egypt from 1863 to 1880: born in Cairo, son of Ibrahim Pasha (1789-1848) and grandson of Mehemet Ali (1769-1848), the Albanian founder of the Egyptian dynasty. Ismail was educated in France and succeeded his uncle Muhammad Said as the Ottoman Sultan’s Viceroy in 1863. In return for doubling the annual tribute paid by Egypt to Turkey, he was allowed in 1867 to become hereditary Khedive. Generous bribes given by Ismail on a visit to the Sultan in 1873 gave him virtual sovereign powers in Egypt. From 1863 onwards Ismail speedily ‘Europeanized’ Egypt, raising foreign loans from an expanding cotton trade and warmly supporting the French construction of the Suez Canal, at the opening of which in 1869 he was host to Empress Eugenie, Emperor FRANCIS JOSEPH and other royal dignitaries. Cairo became the first Muslim city with a Parisian-style opera house. Ismail undertook internal reforms, gave the Nile delta a good railway system, and sought to expand southwards into the Sudan. But his personal and public extravagance was hit by the European recession following the Vienna stock market crash of 1873. Interest rates on his short-term loans became so high that in 1875 he sold his Suez Canal holdings to the British for £4 million. Even so, he could not stave off state bankruptcy, or Anglo-French interference in Egypt’s constitutional development. Under foreign pressure the Sultan deposed Ismail in June 1879; his eldest son Tewfik (1852-92) acceded. Although Ismail died in exile in Constantinople, he imposed more lasting changes on Egypt than any other ruler in four centuries. P.Crabites: Ismail, the Maligned Khedive (1933); E. Fuat Tugay: Three Centuries; Family Chronicles of Turkey and Egypt (1963); D.Landes: Bankers and Pashas (New York, 1969); P.J.Vatikotis: History of Modern Egypt (1991). Ito, Hiroboumi (1841-1909), Japanese westernizer: born in Choshu province of peasant stock but brought up by a modest Samurai family. Although most of his generation were ‘anti-foreigner’, he was selected to travel abroad, first coming to London when he was 22 to study naval science. Upon his return he was appointed Governor of Kobe province, where he introduced a modern fiscal system. He was sent abroad again on a world tour from 1871 to 1873. Ito was chief minister in Japan from 1884 to 1888, preparing the constitution which received imperial assent on 11 February 1889 and which led to the summoning of the first Imperial Diet (a bicameral parliament) a year later. As Prime Minister from 1894 to 1896 he encouraged expansion on the Asiatic mainland, acquiring mastery over Korea by the Treaty of Shimonoseki (17 April 1895) after a brief victorious war against China. He had encouraged the construction of a modern fleet and the westernization of Japan’s army, but by the turn of the century he found himself deprived of influence by a group of militarists headed by Marshal Yamagata (1832-1922), his chief rival as adviser to Emperor MUTSUHITO. Ito

was created a prince in 1900 and served again as Prime Minister in 1900-1 before being sent on a special embassy to St Petersburg. He voted against war with Russia at a decisive council of ministers in 1904 and fell from favour. In 1906 he was appointed Governor of Korea and was assassinated by a Korean nationalist at Harbin on 25 October 1909. His murder provided his former rivals in Tokyo with an excuse for the annexation of Korea (August 1910). R.Storry: A History of Modern Japan (1960); H.Borton: Japan’s Modern Century (New York, 1955); G.Akita: Foundations of Constitutional Government in Modern Japan, 1868-1900 (Stanford, Calif., 1967). Izetbegovi , Alija (1925-), President of Bosnia-Herzegovina: born into a Muslim family near Sarajevo and never abandoned his faith, being imprisoned as early as 1946 for ‘pan-Islamic propaganda’. In 1949 he was released and qualified as a lawyer, though he became director of a building construction company. He also pursued advanced studies on the role of Islam in a multicultural world, receiving a doctorate. A secret Islamic Declaration, completed by him in 1970, was used by the Yugoslav authorities in 1983 as the basis of a show trial, for which he was sentenced to fourteen years’ imprisonment, though released in 1988. In May 1990 he was elected leader of the new Democratic Action Party in Bosnia-Herzegovina, a predominantly Muslim group which won almost onethird of the seats at the ensuing General Election. Izetbegovi —who favoured a multi-ethnic, multifaith republicheaded the coalition government set up in Sarajevo in December 1990, becoming President with Bosnia-Herzegovina’s declaration of independence in May 1992. During the subsequent civil war his authority was challenged by the Bosnian Serb spokesman, KARADZI . Despite occasional rifts within his government, Izetbegovi retained official recognition from the European Community and the United Nations forces within Bosnia, and in December 1995 signed the Treaty of Paris accepting a compromise settlement of the problems of his republic. N.Malcolm: Bosnia, A Short History (1994); M. Glenny: The Fall of Yugoslavia (1992). Izvolsky, Alexander (1856-1919), Russian Foreign Minister from 1906 to 1910: born and educated in St Petersburg, served as a diplomat from 1875 to 1906, holding influential posts in the Balkans, Tokyo and Copenhagen. He was appointed Foreign Minister by NICHOLA S in May 1906, his most remarkable achievement being the convention settling Asian disputes with Britain, popularly known as the Anglo-Russian Entente (August 1907). During the Bosnian crisis of 1908-9 he was placed in an invidious position by the wily Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister, Aehrenthal. In September 1910 the Tsar sent Izvolsky as ambassador to Paris. There he strengthened Franco-Russian military links. He did not, however, have the influence attributed to him by German historians between the world wars who claimed that he was an arch-intriguer, seeking the encirclement of Germany and believing his policy had triumphed when Russia, France and Britain became allied in 1914. Izvolsky hoped his most successful work would be the negotiation, in the spring of 1915, of secret agreements

providing for the Russian annexation of Constantinople and the Straits after the war. This treaty was publicly repudiated by LENIN and TROTSKY in 1918. Izvolsky remained in France after the downfall of Tsardom, dying at Biarritz while compiling his memoirs. A. Izvolsky: Recollections of a Foreign Minister (New York, 1921); R.P.Churchill: The Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 (Cedar Rapids, IA, 1939); B.Schmitt: The Annexation of Bosnia (Cambridge, 1937); A.J.P.Taylor: The Struggle for Mastery in Europe (Oxford, 1954).