ABSTRACT
The evolution of medical thought in the seventeenth century strikingly reflects the tendencies of the period, as exhibited in political and social events and the spiritual revolution of the time. The little Italian duchies were torn by princely rivalry and by the armies of mercenaries. The political and economic conditions in Italy, by obstructing that immediate and fertile co-operation which is possible only when research progresses unhampered and the exchange of ideas is free and rapid, only too often caused the seed to fall on sterile ground. The philosophers were characteristic figures and leading exponents of their age rather than important pioneers and guides of medicine. Anatomy and physiology underwent a marvellous development. Antonio Maria valsalva, pupil of Malpighi and teacher of Morgagni, was especially noted for his studies on the anatomy and physiology of the ear: the functions of the ear-drum, ossicles, and semicircular canal.
