ABSTRACT
Europe is singular in the multiplicity of powers which, during the whole course of its development, have contended for rule over it. The Hellenistic kingdoms and the empire of Rome were maintained by the power of the sword. In Europe every form previously assumed by ruling power was represented in its full vigour. Commerce with the civilisation of Islam early gave rise to a fourth form of power, that of the traders, the power of money. The immediate result of that multiplicity of rival powers was a series of long and desperate conflicts among them all. European wars have been fought by populations heterogeneous in race, language, and religion, in the interests of systems of centralised power carved out by violence and greed of barbaric chieftains. All European powers have, like Frederick of Prussia, loudly disowned and denounced Machiavellian principles as their scapegoat and sedulously practised them.
