ABSTRACT
The comprehension approach suggests that speaking should not be encouraged until learners have substantial receptive experience and knowledge of the language system. Some researchers, however, argue that the knowledge that is needed to speak will not come unless the learners are “pushed” to speak. If learners are pushed to produce output, then the attention that they give to the grammar changes. An idea behind pushed output is that receptive knowledge of the L2 is not always sufficient for production. Comprehension processes involve semantic decoding focusing on turning language items into meaning. Production additionally involves syntactic processing, that is, deciding on the language items needed to express meaning. The chapter describes a variety of ways in which learners’ output can be pushed and supported. These include choosing unfamiliar topics and unfamiliar types of speaking, allowing time for planning, using time pressure, varying the amount of support, and setting a standard of performance. Particular attention is given to formal speaking and monitoring formal talks.
