ABSTRACT
Japan had undergone a "revolution from above", resulting in rapid industrialization, fascism and imperialism. China had undergone a "revolution from below," resulting in mobilization of the peasantry and communist rule. The drawbacks of a revolution from the middle are obvious: the intermediate classes take control of political, economic, and ideological institutions, while the rural and urban poor remain less mobilized and relatively neglected. Reviewing the agrarian history and political economy of Maharashtra helps to explain how sugar cooperatives emerged and flourished. The result has been a system of state politics dominated by competitive, pragmatic, non-ideological leaders from the countryside. Leftist intellectuals and political leaders often oppose the building of autonomous local organizations in the countryside, because they fear that this will strengthen the "rich peasantry" against poor peasants and landless laborers. In India, the adult franchise brought peasants a share of political power, which was revolutionary in itself.
