ABSTRACT
Human ecosystems are dynamic and adaptive: The relations linking human populations to the environment can structurally change over time. The human ecological perspective has been applied to urban parks, national parks, and wilderness areas. An important element of the park ecosystem clearly is the human population. F. L. Campbell notes that humans are the dominant species in every National Park. Another component of the park social organization can be called human institutions—those formal patterns of social organization that enable human needs and wants to be satisfied. Regional ecosystems are linked to park ecosystems—through such common features as airsheds, watersheds, electric power grids, and wildlife ranges. Regional technologies, particularly industrial plants and agriculture and transportation systems, may have significant impacts. The size and boundaries of national parks have been a management concern since the first parks were established. Early interest stemmed from human threats to park wildlife; for example, elk migrating outside Yellowstone National Park, United States, were shot by hunters.
