ABSTRACT
Automation can be comprehensive when involving several stages of terminal operations or specific when only one stage is involved at a time. For greenfield terminals, comprehensive automation is becoming standard, while existing terminals electively automate part of their operations as comprehensive automation could be highly disruptive and costly. Freight terminal automation involves a physical and information component. Automated Ship to Shore Cranes is automated versions of standard portainers that are remotely controlled. An operator can control several cranes instead of one. Foreland and hinterland automation relates to processes that are not directly linked with terminal automation but can support its benefits upstream or downstream along the transport chain. Automation usually involves new terminal developments since there is an opportunity to automate terminal-wide without disrupting existing operations. The push towards automation appears to be an irrevocable trend, further increasing the capital intensiveness of container terminals. Automation is taking place at different scales, paces, and locations.
