ABSTRACT
Jeffrey Anderson made a similar observation concerning the 11th-century Barberini and Theodore Psalters. The 256 seals with concordant images and invocations belonging to the 11th century represent 191 different individuals. The absence of titles and positions on the seals of those who employed concordant invocations and images is most likely not due to limitations of space for metrical inscriptions but rather reflects some other preference. The 121 seals from the 12th-century seals bearing concordant images and invocations represent 97 different individuals. The vast majority of the seals belonged to those who held positions in the civil, military and ecclesiastical bureaucracies, all institutions governed by men. Few seals were issued by empresses, women of aristocratic families, wives of men who held either important titles or offices, or female monastics.
