ABSTRACT
In 2018 Chinese education officials at a state-run textbook publishing house rewrote the description of the 1960s Cultural Revolution in a middle-school-level history textbook. The Chinese placed themselves at the center of the universe, which was reflected in their traditional Chinese name for the country, “Zhonghua” or Middle Kingdom. This China-centered view of the world continued into the 19th century, when China, unable to adjust to changing global circumstances, was “humiliated militarily by superior Western weaponry and technology and faced with imminent territorial dismemberment.” The 19th-century conflict with European imperialist powers came at a time when China was faced with serious internal economic problems. By 1800 the population of China was over 300 million, but economic development had failed to keep up with population growth. Secret societies were formed that combined anti-Manchu political activities with banditry and local revolts periodically erupted against Manchu rule.
