In addition to providing a strategic orientation, the field of management is also concerned with organizational issues. The methods that have developed within business are somewhat distinct from humanistic perspectives and the context of reform. This chapter compares and juxtaposes different perspectives regarding the role of organizational and bureaucratic structures starting with alternatives to the industrial methods of the late nineteenth century. A discussion of formal and informal theories of bureaucracies and organizations follows, along with view of the evolution of Amer ican culture and business that might provide clues regarding indigenous people, ethnic groups, and traditional communities. Specific issues addressed include:

1 Understanding how some reform movements, such as the Arts and Crafts movement and the Appalachian Settlement Schools, reacted against the industrial revolution.