ABSTRACT
The rhetoric of nationalism often confuses the Arab nation with the Islamic umma, as when an Arab nationalist campaign is termed a jihad. Nationalism among such Christian peoples of the Ottoman Empire as the Greeks and Armenians did matter, but will be treated mainly as they spurred the rise of Turkish nationalism. Isma'il's detractors point out that he squandered money to impress Europe with his munificence and power. Building the Suez Canal cost the Egyptian government much. Isma'il also paid huge bribes in Istanbul to loosen his ties to the Ottoman government, changing his title from pasha to khedive of Egypt and obtaining the right to pass down his position to his son in Cairo rather than to a brother living in Istanbul. In 1866 Isma'il convoked an assembly representing the landowners to seek their consent to raise taxes. Isma'il's financial crisis, which tied Egypt to Western creditors and to their governments, shamed Egyptians, especially members of his representative assembly.
