ABSTRACT
Social reaction approaches view the individual as a largely passive being who is forced into the role of a criminal by societal definitions or by the reactions of others. The political and social turmoil of the times created a pervasive mistrust of government and other social institutions. Labeling and social conflict theories provide a critical perspective for the examination of major assumptions in criminology. Discriminatory practices against racial minorities and women by the criminal justice system, the educational system, and the business sector were also brought to light. In the United States, for example, legislation facilitated the transfer of juveniles to the criminal court at younger ages, for less serious offenses, and with less extensive records of delinquency. With left realism, radical criminologists have highlighted the crimes committed by the powerful and the effect of the “suite crimes” on the poor and working class.
