ABSTRACT
Urbanisation was prevalent and concentrated in some parts of Western Europe more than in others: northern Italy, for example, and northern Europe either side of the English Channel across to the Rhine. As systems of urban self-government evolved, within towns individual trades and crafts continued to organise themselves more systematically into sworn associations and, eventually, guilds. Jewish communities formed a distinctive presence in many urban settings across Western Europe by the start of the twelfth century. Jews were officially tolerated by the ecclesiastical authorities because they provided Christians with a visible reminder of Christ’s Passion. By the end of the eleventh century, heavy cavalry dominated military operations across Western Europe. Such warriors had become increasingly respected and feared over the previous two centuries, but, despite having developed significantly as an autonomous group within society, they were not yet automatically viewed as having high social status.
