ABSTRACT
Aggression evolved within humans because it is adaptive. Aggression aids in hunting and men’s sexual access to women. Men are substantially larger and stronger than women and have other physical features that make them more adept at fighting and subduing others, particularly women who are substantially smaller and weaker. Men possess much more testosterone than women, a hormone linked with aggression. Because of women’s roles in reproduction and men’s evolution of size and strength, qualities that aid those roles are associated with women and men in general. Social roles are promulgated through social institutions (media, religion, parenting), promoting social dominance of men over women worldwide. Social institutions promote and reward male aggression while discouraging female aggression. Men are higher in physical and verbal aggression than women at all ages, beginning in childhood. Men are higher in intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration and rape and sexual assault perpetration all over the world. Violence against women is a global public health epidemic endangering women’s lives. Men who are highest in physical and sexual aggression tend to be highly traditional, virulently sexist, and hypermasculine, masculinity that endorses violence, hostility toward women, and sexual callousness.
